Mature Sex Histories !LINK!

Selective mortality, whether caused naturally by predation or through the influence of harvest practices, initiates changes within populations when individuals possessing certain heritable traits have increased fitness. Theory predicts that increased mortality rates will select for changes in a number of different life history characteristics. For example, fishing often targets larger individuals and has been shown repeatedly to alter population size structure and growth rates, and the timing of maturation. For sex-changing species, selective fishing practices can affect additional traits such as the mature population sex ratio and the timing of sexual transformation. Using historical comparisons, we examined the effects of exploitation on life history characteristics of California sheephead, Semicossyphus pulcher, a temperate protogynous (female-male sex changer) labrid that inhabits nearshore rocky environments from central California, USA, to southern Baja California, Mexico. Recreational fishing intensified and an unregulated commercial live-fish fishery developed rapidly in southern California between the historical and current studies. Collections of S. pulcher from three locations (Bahia Tortugas, Catalina Island, and San Nicolas Island) in 1998 were compared with data collected 20-30 years previously to ascertain fishery-induced changes in life history traits. At Bahia Tortugas, where fishing by the artisanal community remained light and annual survivorship stayed high, we observed no changes in size structure or shifts in the timing of maturation or the timing of sex change. In contrast, where recreational (Catalina) and commercial (San Nicolas) fishing intensified and annual survivorship correspondingly declined, males and females shifted significantly to smaller body sizes, females matured earlier and changed sex into males at both smaller sizes and younger ages and appeared to have a reduced maximum lifespan. Mature sex ratios (female:male) increased at San Nicolas, despite a twofold reduction in the mean time spent as a mature female. Proper fisheries management requires measures to prevent sex ratio skew, sperm limitation, and reproductive failure because populations of sequential hermaphrodites are more sensitive to size-selective harvest than separate-sex species. This is especially true for S. pulcher, where different segments of the fishery (commercial vs. recreational) selectively target distinct sizes and therefore sexes in different locations.

mature sex histories

Pregnancy and childbirth may be an especially difficult time for survivors. The physical pain of labor and delivery may trigger memories of past abuse 21 22 23. Women with no prior conscious memories of their abuse may begin to experience emotions, dreams, or partial memories. Pregnant women who are abuse survivors are significantly more likely to report suicidal ideation and depression 7, 24. There are no consistent data regarding adverse pregnancy outcomes for women with histories of childhood sexual abuse.

A female North Pacific Giant Octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) lives three to four years; it lays thousands of eggs in a single bout and then dies. By contrast, a mature Coast Redwood Tree (Sequoia sempervirens) lives for many hundreds of years and produces millions of seeds each year (Figure 1). As these two examples illustrate, organisms differ dramatically in how they develop, the time they take to grow, when they become mature, how many offspring of a particular size they produce, and how long they live. Together, the age-, size-, or stage-specific patterns of development, growth, maturation, reproduction, survival, and lifespan define an organism's life cycle, its life history.

Figure 1: Diversity of life histories.Top: A female North Pacific Giant Octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini). Bottom: A Coast Redwood Tree (Sequoia sempervirens).Photos courtesy of (top) Bachrach44 via Wikimedia Commons, (bottom) Bernt Rostad via Flickr.

The principal aim of life history theory, a branch of evolutionary ecology, is to explain the remarkable diversity in life histories among species. But there is another, more compelling reason for why life history evolution is important: adaptation by natural selection is based on variation in Darwinian fitness among individuals, and since life history traits determine survival and reproduction they are the major components of fitness. The study of life history evolution is thus about understanding adaptation, the most fundamental issue in evolutionary biology.

The classical theory treats life history evolution as an optimization problem: given particular ecological factors (e.g., predators, nutrition) that affect an organism's probability of survival and reproduction, and given limiting constraints and trade-offs intrinsic to the organism, what are the optimal values and combinations of life history traits that maximize reproductive success? To find the solution to this problem we need to understand its "boundary conditions" (Stearns 2000): (1) how extrinsic, environmental factors affect survival and reproduction; and (2) how intrinsic connections among life history traits (trade-offs) and other constraints limit whether and how life history traits can evolve. Once these conditions have been understood and defined, life history models can be used to answer questions such as: How small or large should an organism grow? At what age and size should it mature? How many times should it reproduce? How many offspring should it produce and what size should they be? For how long should it reproduce and how long should it live?

Other constraints on life histories that prevent natural selection from attaining a particular fitness optimum can involve biophysical, biochemical and structural factors, developmental properties of the organism, phylogenetic and historical contingencies, or simply a lack of genetic variation (Stearns 1992, Houle 2001).

Having discussed the optimality modeling approach and the factors that influence the expression of life history traits, we turn now to discussing some major predictions for the evolution of life histories (for details see Stearns 1992, Roff 1992, Charlesworth 1994, Stearns 2000, Roff 2002).

Historians have argued that increasing the age of consent also gave the law a more pronounced regulatory dimension. In practice, these laws were often used to control the behavior of the working-class girls. Yet reformers at the time saw no distinction between protection and regulation: in making it a crime for girls to decide to have sexual intercourse outside marriage, the law protected them from themselves and from the immature understanding that led them to behaviors reformers considered immoral.

A furious debate preceded the enactment of the 1891 law, focused in large part on whether the law violated the commitment the British government had made in 1857 not to interfere in native cultures. That Indian law set the age lower than British law reflected ideas that non-white races "matured earlier," in part because of the environments in which they originated. In the U.S., those who opposed resetting the age of consent to 16 made similar arguments about African-Americans, Mexicans, and Italian immigrants. Australian legislators even claimed that white girls living in sub-tropical climates "ripened" into women earlier than those in Europe.

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Sex roles describe sex differences in courtship, mate competition, social pair-bonds and parental care. A key challenge is to identify associations among the components and the drivers of sex roles. Here, we investigate sex roles using data from over 1800 bird species. We found extensive variation and lability in proxies of sex roles, indicating remarkably independent evolution among sex role components. Climate and life history showed weak associations with sex roles. However, adult sex ratio is associated with sexual dimorphism, mating system and parental care, suggesting that social environment is central to explaining variation in sex roles among birds. Our results suggest that sex differences in reproductive behaviour are the result of diverse and idiosyncratic responses to selection. Further understanding of sex roles requires studies at the population level to test how local responses to ecology, life histories and mating opportunities drive processes that shape sex role variation among higher taxa.

N2 - Sex roles describe sex differences in courtship, mate competition, social pair-bonds and parental care. A key challenge is to identify associations among the components and the drivers of sex roles. Here, we investigate sex roles using data from over 1800 bird species. We found extensive variation and lability in proxies of sex roles, indicating remarkably independent evolution among sex role components. Climate and life history showed weak associations with sex roles. However, adult sex ratio is associated with sexual dimorphism, mating system and parental care, suggesting that social environment is central to explaining variation in sex roles among birds. Our results suggest that sex differences in reproductive behaviour are the result of diverse and idiosyncratic responses to selection. Further understanding of sex roles requires studies at the population level to test how local responses to ecology, life histories and mating opportunities drive processes that shape sex role variation among higher taxa. 041b061a72